Eastern Europe

Introduction

Eastern Europe is considered a "shatter belt"--a zone political splintering and fracturing. Throughout most of its history, it has been dominated by empires: Ottoman (maximum extent of Ottoman Empire in 16th Century), Austro-Hungarian and most recently the U.S.S.R. This past history explains to a large part the multi-ethnic make-up of these countries. We will see the same characteristics when we discuss Africa and Southeast Asia. Many of the countries, came into existence as sovereign or semi-sovereign entities after World War I. Many like Moldova, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Belarus became countries after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. We will discuss them again, when we discuss the former Soviet Union. Counties, such as Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia became nation-states after the dissolution of Yugoslavia. This area, as you are well aware, is extremely unstable, with the possible exception of Croatia.These countries are struggling with privatization, fledgling democracies and ethnic tensions. Many of the countries are anticipating entry into the European Union.

Historic Development

Prior to World War I, this area was dominated by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Russia Empire Ottoman Empire and Prussia. After World War I, all these empires lost major territory and new countries were formed based on ethnic or nationalist tendencies, more or less. Some regained former sovereignty, such as Poland. Others were entirely new countries, such as Czechoslovakia. The Inter-War Period a represented period of instability. Only a few of these countries, such as Czechoslovakia had a robust economy and full democracy. Most had poor economies and had unstable governments or dictatorships. The Germans during World War II, occupied this area. One of the results of German domination was the killing of millions of Eastern European Jews in concentration camps during WW II, This is known as the Holocaust and is a key and poignant milestone in Jewish history and led to the establishment of the State of Israel, which we will discuss later. After W.W.II, the U.S.S.R. brought these countries into its sphere of influence Two attempts by Eastern European counties to overthrow or alter the direction of communism resulted in disaster(e.g. Prague Spring and Hungarian Revolt)

When the Soviet Union started to fail in the late 1980's, most of these countries overthrew their "puppet" governments. Most were peaceful separations, such as in Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic and Slovakia). The creation of an independent and democratic Czechoslovakia is called the "Velvet Revolution" because it relatively peaceful (Likewise, the creation of the Czech Republic and Slovakia is called the "Velvet Divorce" because it was non-violent.) Others were violent such as in Romania and the former Yugoslavia.

Presently, most of these states are undergoing dramatic changes. The specter of the Soviet Union is still present. There is great economic disparity between the Eastern European countries and Western Europe. There is movement for several key Eastern European countries to be members of the European Union (i.e. Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Croatia) and NATO(i.e Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary). The movement for the inclusion of former Eastern Block counties to become part of NATO is being warily viewed by Russia. Meanwhile, counties such as the Czech Republic, Hungary and Romania are struggling with ethnic and nationalistic problems. Of course, when you discuss ethnic and nationalistic problems, the former Yugoslavian states come to mind. These are very weak states whose status is changing almost daily. A problem state, Albania, is heavily involved in the present situation in Yugoslavia. The instability has also been effecting the nearby countries of Greece and Italy.

So, as we can see, the issues involved in Eastern Europe are complicated. The presence of the past empires and leaders are very much part of the make-up of the countries. History in these areas is not something you study at school. History is "in your face" in terms of language, politics, religion and the cultural landscape. The status of these countries are changing very rapidly. They will play key roles in the next century.

Additional Links:

Austro-Hungarian Empire from the Perspective of Austria

Maps Of Austro-Hungarian Empire (1882)

Focus on Key countries in Eastern Europe

Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a new nation which was formed when the former country of Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. Throughout most of the modern era, this area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Prague (Praha) was a significant capital during this time and was prosperous. In previous times, these areas were composed of Bohemia and Moravia. During the middle ages, when these were independent countries, Prague was a center of learning and has one of the oldest universities (Charles University) Prague is one of the best preserved capitals in Europe, because it was not destroyed during W.W.II. Prague is the primate city for the Czech Republic.

During the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the areas of Moravia. and Bohemia were one of the most prosperous in the Empire. The area of Silesia, one of the hearths of the industrial revolution was on the border of Poland and the area that would become the Czech Republic. After World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismantled and the new country of Czechoslovakia was formed. Czechoslovakia was prosperous and contained one of the few democracies in Eastern Europe. However, brooding to the west was Hitler's Germany. Czechoslovakia was draw into the war because Hitler wanted to incorporate a portion of Czechoslovakia called Sudetenland, an area where there was a population of ethnic (not expatriate) Germans. To forestall war, Chamberlain, the prime minister of the U.K. negotiated a peace treaty, which was only a peace treaty on paper. He came back and stated "Peace in our Time". This statement would be infamous and be a symbol for the meaningless of treaties. Chamberlain was forever branded as an idiot due to his naiveté.. Hitler, of course, took all of Czechoslovakia. During W.W.II, Czechoslovakia was in the backwash of the war. It did not experience the ravages of nearby Russia and the Ukraine. After W.W.II, there were to be democratic elections, but the Russians who had been designated the transition government for this area, rigged the elections such that the nation elected communist representative sympathetic to the U.S.S.R. This happened all over Eastern Europe. The U.S.S. R. in the 1940's rapidly industrialized Czechoslovakia and it became a relatively prosperous county in the Eastern Block. However, the result of this industrialization was pollution which was beyond compare in the United States and Western Europe. The country chugged along under the U.S.S.R. In the Spring of 1968, there was a movement to liberalize the communist government. This is referred to as the Prague Spring, also denoting a "thawing of the hard-line communist rule and blooming of new ideas". This was allowed to a certain point. However, the U.S.S.R. perceived this movement as a threat and called in tanks and troops to suppress the movement. Czechoslovakia returned to a "hard- line" rule.

When the U.S.S.R. stated to unravel, the Czechs like their neighbors in Poland began a movement to free Czechoslovakia from the grips of the Soviet Union. The movement was called the "Velvet Divorce" because of the peacefulness of the transition. Czechoslovakia freed itself and proclaimed itself an independent democratic nation, electing Vaclav Havel, a poet/playwright as their president.
The country of Czechoslovakia, being a federation of Moravia., Bohemia and Slovakia was not to last long.Key leaders in Slovakia, stirred up the long felt feeling that Prague was continuing to dominate the "new" country and discriminating against Slovakia An election was held where there was a significant amount of Slovakian representatives that were in favor of separating Slovakia and forming a new nation. The representatives of the then Czech portion of the federation agreed and thus the country of the Czech Republic and Slovakia was formed. This is referred to an the "Velvet Divorce".

The Czech Republic has continued to prosper, with a sound financial plan and increasing privatization and transition to a market economy. It is also certain, the Czech Republic has a stable democracy. The Czech Republic is a diversified economy and is striving to be a member of the E.U. It is one of a set of countries desiring entry into NATO.

A Very Good Link on the Czech Republic!!!

Another Good Link on the Czech Republic

Poland
Poland until after W.W.I was divided between Prussia, Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Prior to its incorporation into these empires Poland was a fairly prosperous place. After W.W.I, Poland regained its status as an independent nation. However, its economy and political situation was less than desirable. Like the Czech Republic and the rest of Eastern Europe, its has had a history of being caught in the middle of two major world powers, Germany and Russia. Its terrain is relatively flat and good for troop movement and thus desirable to march troops. Russia had taken the land because it was a buffer to German aggression. With the desires of Hitler to expand German domination and eventually extend his empire into Russia, Poland was "ripe for the picking". Poland resisted very little and Poland was under the domination of Germany for the rest of the war. Poland, having then a large Jewish population suffered under Hitler. One of the worst concentration camps, Austzwitz, was located outside of Krakow. (See this link to learn more about the Holocaust.)The Jewish population in Poland was decimated beyond recovery in Poland. (This is the setting for Schiendler's List.) Poland was devastated by W.W. II, with many of cities such as Warsaw and Gdansk leveled. Poland, like the Czech Republic became a satellite of the Soviet Union, nominally it was still an independent nation.(Other countries such as Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were not so "lucky" and were absorbed into the Soviet Union and became Socialist Soviet Republics.)

Under the communist era, Poland rapidly industrialized and was rebuilt by the Soviet Union, particularly its shipyards in Gdansk. Poland being an agricultural county was exploited by the U.S.S.R., but the farms were not collectivized by Stalin. (This explains somewhat why Poland and other similar countries have had an easier time adjusting to a market economy.) Poland struggled along feeding the agricultural and industrial needs of the U.S.S.R. One of the keys areas of industrial development was in Silesia, on the border of Poland and Czechoslovakia. Here were built steel mills that belched smoke and were antiquated by Western terms when they were built.

In the 1980's, a union movement led by Lech Walensa was started at the shipyards in Gdansk asking for better worker conditions.This union was name Solidarity. This lead to a nationwide movement to create a independent Poland. This movement had broad support, particularly by the Catholic Church. It should be noted that Pope John Paul was a key figure in supporting this movement. Part of the movement involved increased Church attendance out of protest to the Communist government. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Solidarity and its leader Lech Walensa became the vanguard of the move toward a democratic and market-oriented Poland. The transition was fairly peaceful and was an inspiration for Czechoslovakia.

Present day Poland is struggling with some of the same problems as the Czech Republic and Hungary in that it is in the process of privatizing its economy, rebuilding and modernizing industries and establishing a parliamentary government.

Romania
Romania during the time of Roman Empire was called Dacia and was one of the last areas to be incorporated into the Roman Empire. Its language for this reason is not Slavic like many of the other areas, but Romantic. The areas of Romania during the Middle Ages prior to the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empire was a patchwork of various kingdoms. The most that most people know about Romania is Transylvania and Vlad Dracul ("Dracula") Romania during the period before W.W.I was under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empire.Romania at this time was one of the key agricultural areas of Europe and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Ethnic Hungarians were encouraged to settle in Romania to ease its labor shortage.Germans previously had settled in small pockets in Romania prior to the Empire.
During the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Romania was not industrialized and was in the backwaters of the Empire.After W.W.I, Romania became an independent nation. However, its status did not improve much. It was, for the most part, a dictatorship. During W.W.II, the Germans occupied Romania. After W.W.II, Romania was to become a satellite of the Soviet Union. However, Romania was to take a slightly different track from the rest of the satellites. During the 1950's,  Ceausescu took over leadership of the country. Aiming to rapidly industrialize the country and to build up his own fortune, he put Romania into tremendous debt which it is still recovering. His aim was also to create a socialist Romania and proceeded to tear down the landscape of the previous eras. Bucharest, formerly known as the "Paris of Eastern Europe" was transformed into a socialist city full of thousands of drab apartment buildings and equally as uninspired public buildings.Ceausescu also carried out purges similar to Stalin against perceived traitors and minority groups such as Gypsies.(However, Stalin killed and "sent to mental institutions" more people. We will discuss him in the next section on Russia.) The population was demoralized and many of the people were starving because of the actions of this tyrant. He used the agricultural resources as exchange for much needed foreign currency. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a resistance movement was initiated by the people of Romania. The revolution, as compared to those of Poland and Czechoslovakia, was violent resulting in the death of  Ceausescu and his wife.

Modern Romania is one of the poorest countries in Eastern Europe still suffering because of the former Communist regime. It industries are some of the worst polluters in Romania. In some areas, there are still food shortages. The government is still only nominally democratic.It is also experiencing pressures for autonomy among its ethnic Hungarian population. Romania also contains one of the largest population of Gypsies in Eastern Europe and is struggling to come to terms with how to deal with this traditionally anti-authoritarian nomadic ethnic group.

Former Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia prior to W.W.I, was divided by the Austro-Hungarian and the Ottoman Empire. (This, to a large degree explains the division between the different ethnic groups in this area.) Yugoslavia was a newly created state out of the hodgepodge of ethnic groups. It struggled during the Interwar Era. During this time period, Tito established an independent communist government, which was first aligned with the U.S.S.R.,but then "went out of the fold'. (Albania, its neighbor, followed suit but established a Communist government under Maoist principles.) Yugoslavia was under German occupation during W.W.II. After W.W.II, Yugoslavia retained its status and pursued its own brand of fairly liberal communism. However, Tito kept the reigns and suppressed any ethnic uprisings. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the death of Tito, Yugoslavia ceased to be a country and split into the countries of Montenegro, Serbia, Macedonia or the Republic Formerly Known as Macedonia (Greeks call it Skopje, after its capital), Croatia, Bosnia-Hertzogrovina etc. etc. As we well are aware, the ethnic fighting based on establishing "pure" nations has resulted in countless people being killed.

The former area of Yugoslavia is still in turmoil. The situation has not improved much. The latest variation concerns the fighting of ethnic Albanians in Serbia. Croatia, for this most part, is the exception and has experience relative prosperity and has kept out of the fighting.

You may ask? Are you saying that the other countries are not important?
They are important, but they have similar circumstances. Here are some links to other
Eastern European Countries. (All of the links are from Encarta On-line.)

Hungary             Estonia*              Ukraine*              Belarus*   

Slovakia            Lithuania*          Moldavia                      

Latvia*               Bulgaria               Albania                          

*Former Soviet Socialist Republic

Summary
The situation in Eastern Europe is complex and layered. The past history of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman Empire are still a part of the everyday lives of most Eastern Europeans. The more than thirty years of Communist rule has left economies that are not able to transition easily into a "market driven" economy. The new democracies are struggling with pressures from former Communists. Ethnic problems are prevalent in almost all of the countries. However, there is hope. The countries of Poland, Czech Republic and Hungary are rapidly moving to democracies and market-driven economies. They will probably be the first to be members of the E.U. The development of these countries might enable the countries of Romania and Bulgaria to accelerate their transition. The situation for the former Yugoslavia and Albania is tentative and too close to call.

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What's Going On Right Now in Central Europe?